Inthiscaseweseethefermiers,athirdparty,interposingbetweenlandlordsandtenantstoprovideamorecertaininefortheformer.[17]Tomyknowledge,nosimilararrangementexistedinChina,thoughanotherpracticeprevailed（seenextsection）.InJapan,sharetenancyhasbeenrare;and,atthesametime,apulsorycropinsurancesystemhasbeenenforced.[18]

www.youxs.org.

Intable1,

,whereXiisthehectareyieldinkg.,iversalphenomenon.[19]

www.youxs.org（1930-35）,sharerentisgenerallyslightlyhigherthanfixed（crop）rent,[20]andthispremiummayberegardedasareturntothelandownerforriskbearing.

costs,takenseparately,,andthechoiceofcontractsisdeterminedbyweighingthegainsfromriskd,differentphysicalattributesofcropsandtypesofclimateoften,differentlegalarrangements,suchaspulsoryorsubsidizedcropinsurance,affectthevariancetathirdfactor:differentmarketarrangementsalsoaffectthechoiceofcontractualforms.

[1].Ifonlyoutrighttransfersexistforallresources,”owner”

[2].,”TheNatureoftheFirm,”Economica（November,1937）.

[3].

[4].Whilethisconcepthastheadvantageoftreatingriskasameasurablequantitythatcanbeconvenientlyappliedtoobservations,,forexample,JackHirshleifer,”InvestmentDecisionunderUncertainty:Choice-TheoreticApproaches,”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics（November,1965）.

[5].Transactioncostsmayalsodependonotherfactors,suchasthenumberofparticipantsandtransactions,www.youxs.org（NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1964）,

[6].,”TheEconomicsofInformation,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy（June,1961）.

[7].SeeHaroldDemsetz,”TheExchangeandEnforcementofPropertyRights.”JournalofLawandEconomics（October,1964）.,”TheAnatomyofMarketFailure,”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics（August,1958）.

[8].,inapartmentrentalsthecostofutilitiesisfrequently”paid”byanamountaddedtotheapartmentrent;restaurantsservingbuffetsallowcustomerstoeatasmuchastheypleaseafterpayingalump-sumcovercharge.

[9].Marginalinequalitywithinafirm,asinthecaseoflump-sumcharges,,ifthesamewaterresourceinotherusesisunderacontractthatstipulatesaunitprice,themarginalproductofwaterunderthelump-sumchargeswillbelowerthanthatelsewhere.

Themarginalquantitiesunderdiscussionar（asimpliedintheexampleoflump-sumcharges）,itispossibletodefineadifferentsetofmarginalquantitiesbyincorporatingtransactioncostsinsuchawaythatadifferentsetofmarginalequalitiescouldbeobtained.

[10].ForthesituationinChina,,LandUtilizationinChina（Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1938）,www.youxs.org（London:OxfordUniversityPress,1959）；forotherpartsofAsia,seesourcescitedinchapter1,notes10and14.

[11].（seenextsection）areconsistentwiththisstatement.